Optical Imaging and Spectroscopy Techniques
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By simultaneously overcoming photon-starvation and electronic-bandwidth ceilings, this approach establishes a new operating regime for diffuse optical monitoring and provides a scalable hardware foundation for haemodynamic sensing in vivo.
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Interferometric near-infrared spectroscopy (iNIRS) uniquely offers time-of-flight (TOF) resolution for depth-resolved optical property and blood-flow assessment in tissue, but single-mode collection constrains photon throughput and single-channel implementations impose stringent analogue bandwidth and digitization rates to resolve both TOF and speckle dynamics. Conversely, continuous-wave parallel interferometric NIRS (CW-πNIRS) boosts photon detection via spatial multiplexing on camera sensors, yet sacrifices TOF information and remains limited by camera readout. Here we reconcile these trade-offs with a hybrid swept-source, hybrid iNIRS platform that combines TOF encoding with multi-speckle, heterodyne detection. Liquid-phantom experiments map the trade-space among sweep speed and speckle decorrelation, indicating that sweep rates ≥ 10 kHz are sufficient to outpace decorrelation while preserving TOF contrast under controlled conditions. In contrast, in vivo measurements require higher sweep rates (typically 50-100 kHz) to accommodate faster physiological dynamics. In vivo forearm and forehead measurements demonstrate depth-resolved blood flow measurements during cuff occlusion. By simultaneously overcoming photon-starvation and electronic-bandwidth ceilings, this approach establishes a new operating regime for diffuse optical monitoring and provides a scalable hardware foundation for haemodynamic sensing in vivo.
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@article{Marzejon2026Hybrid,
title = {Hybrid interferometric near infrared spectroscopy (hybrid iNIRS) enables time-of-flight–resolved non-invasive blood flow monitoring in humans in vivo},
author = {Marcin Marzejon and Dawid Borycki},
journal = {Scientific Reports},
year = {2026},
doi = {10.1038/s41598-026-62288-7},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-62288-7}
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