Water saving technologies integrate agronomic environmental and digital pathways for sustainable intensification in paddy rice systems

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Global rice production underpinning food security is increasingly constrained by freshwater scarcity and climate variability. Water-saving technologies (WSTs) such as alternate wetting and drying (AWD), the system of rice intensification (SRI), and direct-seeded rice (DSR) have been promoted to reduce irrigation demand, yet their assessment has largely focused on yield and water productivity, overlooking broader system-level effects. This review synthesizes agronomic, environmental, and digital evidence to reframe WSTs as integrated interventions for climate-resilient rice systems. Intermittent soil moisture regimes under AWD and DSR are associated with substantial methane reductions but may increase nitrous oxide emissions, resulting in context-dependent net global warming potential. Yield stability depends on synchronizing nitrogen management with aerobic soil phases, with integrated strategies improving nitrogen use efficiency. Beyond water savings, WSTs alter soil carbon dynamics, microbial processes, and irrigation-related energy use. Emerging digital tools such as in situ sensors UAV-based remote sensing, and data-driven decision models enable a shift from fixed irrigation schedules to adaptive, precision water management. These findings demonstrate that effective water-saving technologies function as integrated systems requiring synchronized management of water, nutrients, and digital tools, rather than as isolated irrigation interventions.